Hull’s Need Reduction Theory /Drive Reduction Theory
Clark L Hull (1884-1952) a teacher in the university
of Wisconsin and Yale, is credited with putting forth a systematic mathematical
and scientific theory of human behaviour based on conditioning and
connectionism of the earlier behaviourist. He built his theory on a logical
structure of postulates and theorems.
Hull’s theory was first presented in 1943 in
his major book ‘Principles of Behaviour ‘this
theory was extended in 1952 through his last book ‘A Behaviour System’
Hull
introduced the concept of reinforcement and intervening variables between S and
R. Accordingly, when a stimulus (S) impinges on the organism, it results in a
sensory neural impulse (s) a kind of stimulus trace. This stimulus trace
ultimately causes a motor neural reaction (r),that results in an overt
response(R).
According to Hull
A stimulus which
deduces the need is called reinforcement , process of drive deduction is called
reinforcement.
संविधान के अनुच्छेद ३४३ (१ ) के अनुसार '' संघ की राजभाषा हिंदी और लिपि देवनागरी होगी , संघ के राजकीय प्रयोजनों के लिए प्रयोग होने वाले अंकों का रूप भारतीय अंकों का अंतर्राष्ट्रीय स्वरूप होगा ''.इसी अनुच्छेद के दूसरे उपबंध में १५ वर्ष के लिये अंग्रेजी भाषा को भी राजकीय कार्यो के लिए मान्य किया गया।
अनुच्छेद ३४४ में राष्ट्रपति द्वरा एक राजभाषा आयोग के गठन का प्रावधान किया गया है , जो हिंदी के उत्तरोत्तर विकास एवं अंग्रेजी के प्रयोग को काम या बिलकुल समाप्त करने के लिये विचार करेगा, साथ ही तीस सदस्यों की की एक समिति के गठन का भी प्रावधान किया गया जो आयोग की सिफारिशों की समीक्षा करके अपना सुझाव को भेजेगी।
अनुच्छेद ३४४ के अनुसार राज्य विधिक प्रक्रिया द्वरा राजकीय प्रयोजनों के लिए उस राज्य में प्रयुक्त प्रादेशिक भाषोओं में से एक या अनेक अथवा हिंदी को अंगीकार कर सकेगा, किन्तु यदि राज्य ऐसा नहीं करता तो वहाँ राजकाज के लिए अंग्रेजी भाषा ही प्रयोग की जाती रहेगी।
अनुच्छेद ३४८ के अनुसार उच्चतम न्यायालय और उच्च न्यायालयों भाष के संदर्भ में है ,इसमें कहा गया है कि उच्चतम न्यायालय तथा उच्च न्यायालयों में और अधिनियम,विधेयकों आदि में संसद द्वरा अन्य व्यवस्था न किए जाने तक अंग्रेजी का ही प्रयोग होगा , किन्तु राष्ट्रपति की पुर्व सम्मति से किसी राज्य का राज्यपाल हिंदी अथवा उस राज्य में याजकीय प्रयोजन के लिए प्रयुक्त होने वाली भाषा का प्रयोग उस राज्य के उच्च न्यालालय की कार्यवाही के लिए मान्य कर सकता है
Part A (Answer all
items each question carries 2marks)
1.Difference between
holistic curriculum and diversified curriculum
Ans .
Holistic
curriculum:
Learning
of self respect and self esteem and learning to ensure long term success. Give
important to overall development of child. Give importance to seeing beauty.
Give
importance to Connecting to life outside school. Flexible and integrated
classroom learning. Linguistic potential
of children.
Diversified
curriculum:
The Diversified Education Curriculum (D.E.C.)
The D.E.C. is the Stony Brook version of a general education program that is
integral to most college and universitycurricula. It introduces students
to a breadth of knowledge that balances and complements the depth of study
provided by their major field.
2.Write
a short note on the use of statistics in educational research
Ans
There
is a great importance in using statistics for research. Statistics help the
researcher to gather information about particular trends, need and descries.
Statistics are important in educational research. They allow educators to see
what types of learning produces the best result for their students. Statistics
are everywhere basic to research activities.
·Statistics permit the most exact kind of
description that it is useful to any who can understand it when they read the
symbols in terms of which these phenomena are described mathematics and
statistics are a part of descriptive
language.
·Statistics helps us to be definite and exact in
our procedures
·Statistics enables us to summaries our results
in a meaningful and convenient form. Masses of observations taken by the
researchers are meaningless and bewildering.
·Statistics enables us to predict how much of a
thing will happen under condition and about how far we may extent our
generalization.
·Statistics enables us to analyze some of the
casual factors underlying complex events. Thus the role and place of statistics
in research cannot be overemphasized
.
3.prepare
a pie diagram based on following data(number of projects sanctioned) aided 13,
unaided 10, government 27
“Augmented reality (AR) is a live
direct or indirect view of a physical real world environment whose elements are
supplemented by computer- generated sensory input such as sound video graphics
or GPS data.”
Benefits of Augmented reality
•Eye catching presentation
•Interactive lessons
•Let your audience participate
•Portable and less expensive learning materials
•Students can access models from any device at anytime
•Your students will return more knowledge for a longer period
BYOD is learning in the classroom
with the aid of tablets, smart phones, and mobile technology. It is learning
that is collaborative and accessible anywhere.
Students are already familiar and comfortable using their own technology
so they can focus on actually learning with them than learning how to use the
device.Students’ personal mobile devices tend to be more
cutting-edge, so schools can more easily stay up-to-date with technology.
Students are more likely to have remembered their beloved mobile devices than
textbooks or notes. It’s a cost-effective way to save schools money on
technology. With BYOD students are more likely to continue learning outside of
schools hours.When students use their own devices, they take care
of their own ‘training.’BYOD provides opportunity for teaching
respectful/appropriate use, which will be important in properly preparing them
for the future.Students will be more organized with all their
notes and assignments all in one place.BYOD (bring your own device) is the increasing trend
toward employee-owned devices within a business.Smartphonesare
the most common example but employees also take their owntablets,laptopsandUSB drivesinto
the workplace.
BYOD is part of the larger trend ofIT consumerization,
in which consumer software and hardware are being brought into the enterprise.BYOT(bring
your own technology) refers to the use of consumer devices and applications in
the workplace. More specific variations on the term include bring your own
computer (BYOC).
Benefits
of BYOD in classroom
The
current generation of students has grown up with technology and want to use it
in every aspect of their daily lives — including school. They have an
expectation that the same technology they use at home will be available at
school too. Thanks to the mass consumerization of technology, students are now
some of the most enthusiastic and savvy users of state-of-the-art mobile
computing devices.
They
keep their beloved mobile devices on them at all times, and are not just using
them to communicate with friends or download music. In fact, they use
technology to study or work on homework assignments and they believe that
mastering the latest technology skills will improve their educational and
career opportunities.
A couple
of years ago I spoke to my principal and we both recognized an opportunity to
make the most of the technology already in students’ hands, allowing them to
use the technology with which they feel most comfortable — their own laptops,
smartphones and tablets — in class. Students are allowed to use their personal
devices to take notes, collaborate on class assignments, conduct Internet
research and use cloud- based apps.
1.Student participation increases.
Students like using their personal devices. In my classes they become engaged
in whatever it is that they’re doing with their personal devices —
including classwork, which becomes even more interactive when everyone has
access to technology. Kids these days live for technology. It only makes
sense to utilize their love for technology in the classroom if you really
want to get them engaged.
2.Learning becomes student-driven.
Teaching in the digital age is becoming less about directly transferring
knowledge and more about showing students how to sift through vast amounts of
information to find the knowledge they need. BYOD has changed my teaching
model. With the technology they are using for BYOD, students have more
authority over their own learning. They can pose questions and do research
instead of just listening to my lectures.
3.Student collaboration and communication increases.
Collaboration is key to engagement in today’s classrooms. My students use
technology to communicate with their peers and with me. A BYOD initiative can
provide students with far greater opportunities to interact virtually with
teachers and work with other students on assignments, projects and content
creation.
4.Cost Savings.
Although BYOD is really about delivering education in new ways, saving money is
an important objective. With the students using their own mobile devices in the
classroom, schools can save money on technology costs. My school does not need
to spend a fortune trying to keep up with all the coolest technology that can
be used for education these days, if students are allowed to use their own
mobile devices.
5.Personalized instruction.
I use media to meet different learning styles. Then, all students can learn and
excel at their own pace. By allowing my students to follow along with my
interactive, multimedia lessons on their mobile devices, I give them more
control over the pace at which they learn. Students spend countless hours
outside the classroom on their mobile devices. So, why not use that to my
advantage? I let them use their devices as engaging learning tools in the
classroom. Then, they can easily bring their homework, educational games,
projects with them. Everything they need to continue learning outside the
classroom can be accessed anytime, anywhere, with the swipe of a finger.
6.A new way of learning.
Incorporating student-owned mobile computing devices into the curriculum has
helped me transform my direct instruction methods into project-and
inquiry-based learning opportunities. This pedagogical approach helps students
learn by doing and gives them ownership of their education.
More Sample School BYOT
Policies
1. Brentwood Middle School BYOT Policy
2. Central Carrabus High School BYOT
Policy(Update: link has moved. Let us know in
the comments if you find a current link.)
3. Queen of Peace Catholic School BYOT
Policy(Update: link has moved. Let us know in
the comments if you find a current link.)
4. Oak Hills School District BYOT Policy
5. Mount Olive Township School District
BYOT Policy ((Update: link has moved. Let us know in
the comments if you find a current link.)
6. Allen High School BYOT Policy
7. Corcoran Unified School District BYOT Policy(Update: link has moved. Let us know in the comments if you
find a current link.)
Creative Commons (CC)
is a non-profit organization devoted to expanding the range of creative works
available for others to build upon legally and to share. The organization has
released several copyright-licenses known as Creative Commons licenses. These
licenses allow creators to communicate which rights they reserve, and which
rights they waive for the benefit of recipients or other creators.
Creative common license is a standardized
method for managing copyright of your work. ACC license is used when an author
wants to give people the right to share use, and build upon a work that they
have created. It is open education, open data, science, research, music, video,
photography, or public policy, we are putting sharing and collaborating at the
heart of the web.
In 2002 the Education Program of the Hewlett Foundation
introduced a major component into its strategic plan Using Information
Technology to Increase Access to High-Quality Educational Content. This review1
begins with this plan as a baseline. Hewlett program officers were motivated to
initiate the component after thoroughly examining content for K through 12 and
post-secondary levels and finding it “alarmingly disappointing.” In 1992, when
the World Wide Web was launched, open information resources rapidly became
freely available, although they were of widely varying quality. With rare
exception, the available materials neither promoted enhanced learning nor
incorporated the latest technological and pedagogical advances. Educational
institutions and publishers, lack of quality assurance for the content, and
information overload also impeded the educational impact. During the 1990s, the
funding for information technology in education primarily emphasized access to
computers and Internet connection and the basic literacy for their use. The
intent of this new Hewlett Foundation program component was to catalyze
universal access to and use of high-quality academic content on a global scale.
In the spirit of the work of Nobel economist Amartya Sen2 , the plan is
intended to be a strategic international development initiative to expand
people’s substantive freedoms through the removal of “unfreedoms”: poverty,
limited economic opportunity, inadequate education and access to knowledge,
deficient health care, and oppression
Open educational resources (OER) are freely accessible, openly
licensed documents and media that are useful for teaching, learning, and
assessing as well as for research purposes. It is the leading trend in
distance education/open and distance learning domain
as a consequence of the openness movement
Benefits of OER
OER are teaching,
learning, and research resources that reside in the public domain or have been
released under an intellectual property license that permits their free use or
re-purposing by others.3 Open educational resources include full courses,
course materials, modules, textbooks, streaming videos, tests, software, and
any other tools, materials, or techniques used to support access to knowledge.
MIT OCW
The flagship of the OER
investments is the MIT Open Courseware Project .This world-changing project
emerged from MIT faculty and administrators who asked themselves the following
question: “How is the Internet going to be used in education and what is our
university going to do about it?” The answer from the MIT faculty was this:
“Use it to provide free access to the primary materials for virtually all our
courses. We are going to make our educational material available to students,
faculty, and other learners, anywhere in the world, at any time, for free.”
Atkins chaired an in-depth review of the OCW project in the fall of 2005 and
Brown serves on the OCW advisory committee. The OCW project at MIT has created
a very successful, compelling, living existence proof of the power of
high-quality open educational resources. It is a pioneering project that has
now become a catalyst for a nascent open courseware movement in service of both
teachers and learners
Cloud computing is a software applications data storage and processing
capacity or access over the internet. The
benefits of cloud computing are being recognized in businesses and institutions
across the board, with almost 90 percent of organizations currently using some
kind of cloud-based application. The immediate benefits of cloud computing are
obvious: cloud-based applications reduce infrastructure and IT costs, increase
accessibility, enable collaboration, and allow organizations more flexibility
in customizing their products both for their brand and for their audience. But
cloud computing is having other affects as well, which have the potential to
greatly change how education works, both inonline coursesand in traditional classrooms.
1. No more expensive textbooks. It’s no secret that university-level textbooks are expensive. The cost
of textbooks has outpaced the cost of virtually everything else in education,
including tuition. As a result, many students are simply refusing to buy them.
Cloud-based textbooks can solve this problem as digital content is
significantly less expensive than printed content. This levels the playing field
so that lower-income students can have the same access to quality learning
materials as their higher-income counterparts. Currently, higher education
institutions across the United States are piloting an e-textbook program
involving 50 publishers and close to 30,000 textbooks.
2. No more outdated learning
materials.In the K-12 arena, the problem of expensive
textbooks means that many of the materials students are using are outdated. The
average social studies book in elementary and junior high schools are seven to
eleven years old, which means that the world maps in these books are no longer
correct. With cutbacks in school budgets, many districts, especially in less
affluent areas, simply can’t afford to replace these outdated resources.
Cloud-based materials are easy to update in real time so that students always
have access to the most current.
Three ways of cloud computing
IAAS
Application Software (ERP)
PAAS
Operating system
Platform
SAAS
Hardware Network
Infrastructure
Software as a Service (SaaS) is defined as
software that is deployed over the internet.With
SaaS, a provider licenses an application to customers either as a service on
demand, through a subscription, in a “pay-as-you-go” model, or (increasingly)
at no charge when there is opportunity to generate revenue from streams other
than the user, such as from advertisement or user list sales
SaaS is a rapidly growing market as indicated in recent reports that predict
ongoing double digit growth. This rapid growth indicates that SaaS will soon
become commonplace within every organization and hence it is important that
buyers and users of technology understand what SaaS is and where it is
suitable.
Characteristics of SaaS
Like other forms of Cloud Computing, it is important to ensure that
solutions sold as SaaS in fact comply with generally accepted definitions of
Cloud Computing. Some defining characteristics of SaaS include;
• Web access to commercial software
• Software is managed from a central location
• Software delivered in a “one to many” model
• Users not required to handle software upgrades and patches
• Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) allow for integration between
different pieces of software
Where SaaS Makes Sense
Cloud Computing generally, and SaaS in particular, is a rapidly growing
method of delivering technology. That said, organizations considering a move to
the cloud will want to consider which applications they move to SaaS. As such
there are particular solutions we consider prime candidate for an initial move
to SaaS;
• Applications where there is significant interplay between the organization
and the outside world. For example, email newsletter campaign software
• Applications that have a significant need for web or mobile access. An
example would be mobile sales management software
• Software that is only to be used for a short term need. An example would be
collaboration software for a specific project
• Software where demand spikes significantly, for example tax or billing
software used once a month
SaaS is widely accepted to have been
introduced to the business world by the Salesforce Customer Relationship Management (CRM)
product. As one of the earliest entrants it is not surprising that CRM is the
most popular SaaS application area [11], however e-mail, financial management,
customer service and expense management have also gotten good uptake via SaaS.
Where SaaS May Not be the Best Option
While SaaS is a very valuable tool, there are certain situations where
we believe it is not the best option for software delivery. Examples where SaaS
may not be appropriate include;
• Applications where extremely fast processing of real time data is required
• Applications where legislation or other regulation does not permit data being
hosted externally
• Applications where an existing on-premise solution fulfills all of the
organization’s needs
Software as a Service may be the best known aspect of Cloud Computing,
but developers and organizations all around the world are leveraging Platform
as a Service, which mixes the simplicity of SaaS with the power of IaaS, to
great effect.
Launched in November
2008, Groupon features a daily deal on
the best stuff to do, see, eat and buy in more than 500 markets and 40
countries. The company has thousands of employees spread across its Chicago and
Palo Alto offices, regional offices in Europe, Latin America, Asia and Africa
with local account executives stationed in many cities. Groupon seeks to sell
only quality products and services, be honest and direct with customers, and
provide exceptional customer service.
“Within a few months of our founding, our customer base exploded,” says
Joe Harrow, Director of Customer Service, Groupon. “At first, I was spending 10
percent of my time responding to customer requests. It gradually became a job
for several agents. We realized we simply couldn’t go on without a real
ticketing solution.”
Convinced that Groupon’s rapid growth would continue, Harrow researched
several enterprise-level support solutions. But he didn’t find a good fit.
“The enterprise-level solutions seemed complicated and difficult to set
up,” Harrow recalls. “They would have increased our efficiency, but at the cost
of hampering the customer experience.” Harrow then searched the web for online
support software and found Zendesk [14]. After a quick evaluation of Zendesk,
Harrow knew he had the right solution.
“Right off the bat, Zendesk was intuitive to use,” Harrow says. “It seemed more
powerful and robust than other online support solutions, and it had been rated
very highly in reviews we’d read. Plus, we knew that because it was a web-based
solution, it could easily scale to support our increasing volume.”
Groupon now employs more than 150 customer support agents, who handle
nearly 15,000 tickets per day. Zendesk’s macros, which are predefined answers
to FAQs, are Groupon’s favorite Zendesk feature. These macros help Groupon
train its agents to deliver one of the company’s customer service hallmarks:
one-touch resolution.
Groupon has also found it easy to integrate Zendesk with other
solutions. By integrating Zendesk with GoodData, Groupon has extended and
enhanced its reporting – going well beyond the limits of its old spreadsheets.
As an example of the sort of scalability that SaaS brings, Groupon recently
processed its millionth customer ticket .
Platform as
a Service
Platform as a Service (PaaS) brings the benefits that SaaS bought for
applications, but over to the software development world. PaaS can be defined
as a computing platform that allows the creation of web applications quickly
and easily and without the complexity of buying and maintaining the software
and infrastructure underneath it.
PaaS is analogous to SaaS except that, rather than being software
delivered over the web, it is a platform for the creation of software,
delivered over the web.
Characteristics of PaaS
There are a number of different takes on what constitutes PaaS but some
basic characteristics include.
• Services to develop, test, deploy, host and
maintain applications in the same integrated development environment. All the
varying services needed to fulfil the application development process
• Web based user interface creation tools help to create, modify, test and
deploy different UI scenarios
• Multi-tenant architecture where multiple concurrent users utilize the same
development application
• Built in scalability of deployed software including load balancing and
failover
• Integration with web services and databases via common standards
• Support for development team collaboration – some PaaS solutions include
project planning and communication tools
• Tools to handle billing and subscription management
PaaS, which is similar in many ways to Infrastructure as a Service that
will be discussed below, is differentiated from IaaS by the addition of value
added services and comes in two distinct flavours;
1. A collaborative platform for software development, focused on
workflow management regardless of the data source being used for the
application. An example of this approach would be Heroku, a PaaS that utilizes
the Ruby on Rails development language.
2. A platform that allows for the creation of software utilizing proprietary
data from an application. This sort of PaaS can be seen as a method to create
applications with a common data form or type. An example of this sort of
platform would be the Force.com PaaS from Salesforce.com which is used almost
exclusively to develop applications that work with the Salesforce.com CRM
Where PaaS Makes Sense
PaaS is especially useful in any situation where multiple developers
will be working on a development project or where other external parties need
to interact with the development process. As the case study below illustrates,
it is proving invaluable for those who have an existing data source – for
example sales information from a customer relationship management tool, and
want to create applications which leverage that data. Finally PaaS is useful
where developers wish to automate testing and deployment services.
The popularity of agile software development, a group of software
development methodologies based on iterative and incremental development, will
also increase the uptake of PaaS as it eases the difficulties around rapid
development and iteration of software.
Some examples of PaaS include Google App Engine , Microsoft Azure Services
and the Force.com.
Where PaaS May Not be the Best Option
We contend that PaaS will become the predominant approach towards
software development. The ability to automate processes, use pre-defined
components and building blocks and deploy automatically to production will
provide sufficient value to be highly persuasive. That said, there are certain
situations where PaaS may not be ideal, examples include;
• Where the application needs to be highly portable in terms of where it
is hosted
• Where proprietary languages or approaches would impact on the development
process
• Where a proprietary language would hinder later moves to another provider –
concerns are raised about vendor lock-in
• Where application performance requires customization of the underlying
hardware and software.
Infrastructure as a Service
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) is a way of delivering Cloud
Computing infrastructure – servers, storage, network and operating systems – as
an on-demand service. Rather than purchasing servers, software, datacenter
space or network equipment, clients instead buy those resources as a fully
outsourced service on demand.
As we detailed in a previous whitepaper, within IaaS, there are some
sub-categories that are worth noting. Generally IaaS can be obtained as public
or private infrastructure or a combination of the two. “Public cloud” is
considered infrastructure that consists of shared resources, deployed on a
self-service basis over the Internet.
By contrast, “private cloud” is infrastructure that emulates some of
Cloud Computing features, like virtualization, but does so on a private
network. Additionally, some hosting providers are beginning to offer a
combination of traditional dedicated hosting alongside public and/ or private
cloud networks. This combination approach is generally called “Hybrid Cloud”.
Characteristics of IaaS
As with the two previous sections, SaaS and PaaS, IaaS is a rapidly
developing field. That said there are some core characteristics which describe
what IaaS is. IaaS is generally accepted to comply with the following;
• Resources are distributed as a service
• Allows for dynamic scaling
• Has a variable cost, utility pricing model
• Generally includes multiple users on a single piece of hardware
There are a plethora of IaaS providers out there from the largest Cloud players
like Amazon Web Services and Rackspace to more boutique regional players.
As mentioned previously, the line between PaaS and IaaS is becoming more
blurred as vendors introduce tools as part of IaaS that help with deployment
including the ability to deploy multiple types of clouds.
Where IaaS Makes Sense
IaaS makes sense in a number of situations and these are closely related
to the benefits that Cloud Computing bring. Situations that are particularly
suitable for Cloud infrastructure include;
• Where demand is very volatile – any time there are significant spikes
and troughs in terms of demand on the infrastructure
• For new organizations without the capital to invest in hardware
• Where the organization is growing rapidly and scaling hardware would be
problematic
• Where there is pressure on the organization to limit capital expenditure and
to move to operating expenditure
• For specific line of business, trial or temporary infrastructural needs
